Public law

1. ↑ international law. International law is a complex legal framework that governs relations between states, organisations and individuals at a global level. Emerging from historical foundations such as medieval maritime codes and the Law of Nations, it has evolved through key developments such as the Westphalian System and the establishment of the United Nations. Its sources include treaties, customary practices and national laws. Significant milestones include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the creation of international judicial bodies such as the International Court of Justice. The system addresses global challenges through dispute resolution mechanisms and increasingly focuses on human rights. Despite limitations in application, international law provides a critical platform for managing transnational interactions, resolving conflicts and establishing normative principles that transcend national borders. Its scope continues to expand, reflecting growing interdependence and the need for co-operative global governance.

2. ↑ private law. The distinction between public and private law originates in Roman legal traditions, initially differentiating between state interests and individual utility. This classification is fundamental to legal education and reflects the separation between the public and private spheres. Modern legal scholarship challenges clear demarcation, highlighting the complexity of legal relationships and the emergence of hybrid legal domains. The evolution of constitutional thinking has significantly impacted this distinction, introducing concepts of fundamental rights and judicial review. The 20th century witnessed a transformation in private law through publicisation and constitutionalisation, emphasising human dignity over property rights. This shift represents a movement to place the human person at the centre of legal interpretation, challenging traditional hierarchical legal structures and recognising the interconnectedness of public and private legal domains.

3. ↑ constitution. Constitutions are fundamental legal documents that define government structures, rights and principles. They can be rigid or flexible, existing at national, regional or local levels, and are created by a sovereign constituent power. Constitutional reforms are typically carried out by a derived constituent power with specific limitations. Key features include protecting fundamental rights, establishing state mechanisms and maintaining legal supremacy. Control mechanisms ensure constitutional compliance through diffuse and concentrated review processes. Most democratic constitutions are developed through constituent assemblies and include provisions that protect core normative elements. International influences, particularly from the American and French revolutions, have shaped modern constitutional theory. Notably, some constitutions such as India's are extensively detailed, with hundreds of articles and amendments. The principle of constitutional unity emphasises the harmonious interpretation of legal principles, resolving potential conflicts through balanced approaches.

4. ↑ society. A society is a group of individuals interacting to achieve common goals, sharing a fundamental principle of bonding. Characterised by networks of interconnected relationships, societies can be institutionalised or non-institutionalised, ranging from bands and tribes to complex state structures. Communities serve as intermediary groups between individuals and wider societal structures, encompassing family, professional and social networks. Anthropological perspectives emphasise the organisation of societies based on subsistence, technology and communication, challenging previous hierarchical notions. Social norms and institutions play crucial roles in maintaining group cohesion, with mechanisms such as generosity, status recognition and shared rituals. The evolution of societies reflects changing dynamics of cooperation, specialisation and adaptation, demonstrating how human groups organise themselves to survive and thrive in different cultural and environmental contexts.

5. ↑ law. Law is a complex system of rules that regulate human behaviour through rights and duties, shaped by various social and cultural influences. Rooted in Latin and Sanskrit origins, it encompasses various legal families such as civil law and common law. The field largely distinguishes between public and private law, addressing corporate and individual interests respectively. Its foundations date back to archaic societies, with early codifications such as the Code of Ur-Namu and the Code of Hammurabi. Roman law significantly advanced legal systems, separating law from religion and morality, and developing sophisticated legal concepts. Modern law comes from multiple sources, including state legislation, international treaties and individual contracts. Courts and tribunals apply legal norms through interpretation guided by doctrine, custom and judicial precedent, reflecting the dynamic and adaptive nature of law.

6. ↑ state. A state is a sovereign entity with defined territorial limits, a population and autonomous governance. Originating from the Latin word "status", it emerged from the decline of feudalism and was formally recognised in the Peace of Westphalia of 1648. States exercise sovereign authority through institutions that make and enforce laws, manage economic affairs and provide public services. They can be structured as unitary or federal systems, monarchies or republics, each with distinct organisational characteristics. The main functions include maintaining security, collecting taxes, providing public goods and representing national interests internationally. The concept of the state has been significantly influenced by political philosophers such as Hobbes and Locke and shaped by historical events such as the French Revolution. Its evolution continues in response to global challenges and changing socio-political dynamics.