Ius gentium

1. ↑ international law. International law is a complex legal framework that governs relations between states, organisations and individuals at a global level. Emerging from historical foundations such as medieval maritime codes and the Law of Nations, it has evolved through key developments such as the Westphalian System and the establishment of the United Nations. Its sources include treaties, customary practices and national laws. Significant milestones include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the creation of international judicial bodies such as the International Court of Justice. The system addresses global challenges through dispute resolution mechanisms and increasingly focuses on human rights. Despite limitations in application, international law provides a critical platform for managing transnational interactions, resolving conflicts and establishing normative principles that transcend national borders. Its scope continues to expand, reflecting growing interdependence and the need for co-operative global governance.

2. ↑ public law. The division between public and private law derives from Roman legal traditions, particularly Ulpiano's distinction between jus publicum and jus privatum. This classification separates legal rules on the basis of interests (public vs. private), types of legal relations (coordination vs. imposition) and forms of interaction (imperative vs. autonomy). Public law covers international, constitutional, administrative, criminal, financial and tax law, while private law has weakened as the state increasingly intervenes in legal domains. Criticisms of this division include a lack of precision, oversimplification of legal complexities and insufficient differentiation between individual and collective interests. Modern interpretations see the constitution as the foundation of all domestic law, blurring traditional boundaries and suggesting that all law potentially becomes public. The separation reflects the evolving relationship between state and society, highlighting the dynamic nature of legal categorisation.

3. ↑ civil law. Civil law is a comprehensive legal system that governs private relations in various jurisdictions. Originating from Roman law (Ius Civile), it encompasses principles of ethics, sociability and operability. The system influences multiple legal traditions, including Brazilian civil law, which has undergone significant transformations through historical codifications. The Brazilian Civil Code, established in 2002 (Law No. 10.406), replaced previous legal structures and introduced progressive changes such as reducing the age of civil majority to 18, allowing parental emancipation from the age of 16 and guaranteeing equal rights for artificial and natural children. Its structure includes a General Part, a Special Part and a Complementary Part, addressing various legal domains. The code reflects evolving social norms by promoting gender equality and adapting legal definitions to contemporary social contexts, demonstrating the dynamic nature of civil law in regulating citizens' interactions and rights.

4. ↑ politics. Politics is a multifaceted field that explores governance, power dynamics and social organisation. Originating from the ancient Greek term "politeia", it examines the structures and processes of state management. Political power is characterised by its ability to influence social outcomes through mechanisms of legitimacy, centralisation and coercion. Various political systems, from democracies to monarchies, operate through complex institutions such as legislatures, executives and judiciaries. Different ideological perspectives - including liberalism, conservatism and socialism - shape the understanding of state functions, individual rights and social relations. International politics further expands this domain, analysing global interactions, diplomatic relations and transnational governance. Theories of political change, power distribution and institutional structures provide critical insights into how societies organise, govern and transform themselves through political processes and philosophical debates.

5. ↑ jurist. A jurist is a legal professional with extensive knowledge of law, as distinct from a lawyer who practises law. Originating in the Roman legal system of the 4th century BC, jurists were initially legal advisors who interpreted public legal norms. In Latin America, the term denotes a specialist recognised for theoretical legal contributions. Jurists can work in the public and private sectors, including roles such as prosecutors, judges, public defenders and arbitrators. Their main focus is to study and analyse legal principles, contributing to the development of jurisprudence through academic interpretations. Unlike lawyers who apply the law in practice, jurists provide deeper theoretical insights into legal systems. A jurist's professional recognition is often conferred by the legal community, signifying a high level of expertise and theoretical understanding of legal structures.

6. ↑ law. The law has evolved through complex historical stages, from ancient Egyptian and Sumerian codes to sophisticated Roman legal systems. Ancient civilisations developed organised legal structures, with significant innovations emerging in Greece and Rome. Roman law, strongly influenced by Greek philosophy, was systematically codified and subsequently rediscovered in the 11th century, forming the basis for continental European legal systems. During the Middle Ages, custom and case law replaced rigid Roman codes, with the English royal courts developing common law precedents. Modern legal systems emerged with influential codifications such as the Napoleonic and German civil codes, demonstrating increasing standardisation. Throughout history, law has been closely connected to the development of civilisation, continually adapting to changing social contexts and reflecting national identities through philosophical, cultural and professional influences.

7. ↑ reason. Reason is the capacity of the human mind to draw conclusions through rational thought and deliberation. Derived from the Greek "logos", it represents orderly and clear cognitive processes that distinguish humans from other species. Philosophers such as Socrates, Hegel and Kant have explored the nature of reason, variably seeing it as a dialogical method, a divine historical force or a faculty with inherent limitations. Unlike decision-making based on emotion, intuition or faith, reason seeks truth through logical analysis and understanding. It involves understanding the primary qualities of objects, expressing thoughts consciously and solving complex problems. Throughout philosophical history, reason has been contrasted with imagination and other mental faculties, but it remains a fundamental tool for intellectual enquiry and understanding the underlying principles of the world.

8. ↑ system. A system is a complex arrangement of interconnected components working towards a common goal. Characterised by functional integration and synergy, systems can be physical or conceptual, ranging from biological organisms to organisational structures. Biological systems follow a hierarchical organisation from atomic to cosmic levels, while information systems in computer science focus on algorithmic processes. Systems interact dynamically with their environment through inputs and outputs, maintaining homeostasis through continuous communication between elements. Different types of systems exist across disciplines, including human biological systems such as digestive and nervous systems, and social systems such as economic and legal structures. The core principle underlying all systems is the interdependence of the components, where changes in one part can significantly influence the functionality and performance of the entire system.

9. ↑ pretor. Na Roma antiga, os pretores eram magistrados-chave que surgiram em 366 a.C. para auxiliar os cônsules em deveres judiciais. Inicialmente reservado para patrícios, o papel se expandiu para incluir funções judiciais, militares e administrativas. Os pretores detinham poderes legais significativos, presidindo julgamentos civis e criminais, e administrando a justiça entre cidadãos e estrangeiros. Eles possuíam imperium, permitindo-lhes sentar em cadeiras curuis e serem acompanhados por lictores. O pretoriado evoluiu através dos períodos Republicano e Imperial, com os pretores emitindo éditos que se tornaram importantes fontes do direito romano. No final do Império Romano, suas responsabilidades diminuíram para tarefas municipais, embora permanecessem um caminho para aristocratas locais entrarem no Senado. No Império Bizantino, os pretores continuaram a desempenhar papéis administrativos, com os pretores civis gradualmente ganhando influência sobre os oficiais militares.