Alf Ross

1. ↑ international law. International law is a complex legal framework that governs relations between states, organisations and individuals at a global level. Emerging from historical foundations such as medieval maritime codes and the Law of Nations, it has evolved through key developments such as the Westphalian System and the establishment of the United Nations. Its sources include treaties, customary practices and national laws. Significant milestones include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the creation of international judicial bodies such as the International Court of Justice. The system addresses global challenges through dispute resolution mechanisms and increasingly focuses on human rights. Despite limitations in application, international law provides a critical platform for managing transnational interactions, resolving conflicts and establishing normative principles that transcend national borders. Its scope continues to expand, reflecting growing interdependence and the need for co-operative global governance.

2. ↑ realismo jurídico. O realismo jurídico é uma filosofia jurídica que emergiu no início do século XX, principalmente nos Estados Unidos e na Escandinávia. Desafia o pensamento jurídico tradicional, focando no comportamento efetivo dos juízes em vez de normas jurídicas abstratas. Proponentes como Karl N. Llewellyn e Jerome Frank argumentam que o direito é essencialmente o que os juízes decidem na prática, não o que os textos jurídicos prescrevem. O movimento procura compreender a tomada de decisão judicial através de análise empírica, vendo o direito como um conjunto de previsões sobre futuras sentenças judiciais. Os realistas jurídicos escandinavos, liderados por Axel Hägerström, visavam similarmente expor ficções jurídicas e compreender como os sistemas jurídicos realmente operam. Embora criticado por potencialmente conceder aos juízes discricionariedade excessiva, o realismo jurídico influenciou significativamente a erudição jurídica ao enfatizar os aspetos práticos e comportamentais do direito, distinguindo-se tanto do positivismo jurídico quanto do moralismo jurídico ao priorizar a ação judicial sobre construtos teóricos.

3. ↑ natural law. Natural law is a philosophical theory that explores moral and rational principles inherent in human nature. Rooted in Greek philosophical traditions and developed through the contributions of thinkers such as Aristotle, Thomas Aquinas and Locke, it posits universal moral standards that transcend positive (human-made) law. The theory argues that certain fundamental human goods and rights exist independently of legal systems, derived from reason and human nature. The main proponents emphasise the role of natural law in establishing just legal structures, human rights and ethical standards. Medieval and modern philosophers interpreted natural law through theological, philosophical and rational perspectives, considering its relationship to divine order, human reason and social contract theory. Contemporary natural law theorists continue to defend objective moral principles against ethical relativism, asserting that legitimate law must be aligned with fundamental human rights and moral absolutes. The theory remains influential in legal, philosophical and theological discourse.

4. ↑ Jurisprudence ( Jurisprudência ) Case law is the systematic study of legal principles and judicial decisions, originating in Roman law and developing through English common law. It encompasses the interpretation and application of laws by the courts, serving to fill legal gaps and adapt to contemporary societal needs. Judicial decisions provide critical guidance for legal practice, with specialised databases helping lawyers navigate complex legal landscapes. While laws have broader application and are created through legislative processes, court decisions offer specific interpretations and precedents within a given jurisdiction. The discipline plays a crucial role in understanding legal customs, resolving disputes and ensuring consistent judicial reasoning. Modern jurisprudence relies on technological solutions to categorise and analyse court decisions, enabling more efficient legal research and interpretation.

5. ↑ positivism. O positivismo é uma abordagem filosófica que afirma que o conhecimento genuíno provém exclusivamente de evidências empíricas e métodos científicos. Originando-se na França do início do século XIX com pensadores como Auguste Comte, enfatiza a experiência sensorial e o raciocínio lógico, rejeitando a intuição, crenças religiosas e insights metafísicos. Os positivistas argumentam que apenas informações cientificamente verificáveis constituem conhecimento válido, promovendo uma visão materialista que prioriza fenômenos observáveis sobre experiências espirituais ou subjetivas. A "Lei dos Três Estágios" de Comte descreve a progressão do entendimento humano de estágios teológicos a metafísicos a positivos, onde a observação científica substitui o pensamento especulativo. Apesar de sua influência inicial difundida em várias disciplinas, o positivismo enfrentou críticas significativas por sua metodologia redutora e incapacidade de explicar experiências humanas complexas. A abordagem declinou gradualmente à medida que os estudiosos reconheceram a importância de fatores subjetivos e nuances contextuais na compreensão de fenômenos sociais e humanos.

6. ↑ jurist. A jurist is a legal professional with extensive knowledge of law, as distinct from a lawyer who practises law. Originating in the Roman legal system of the 4th century BC, jurists were initially legal advisors who interpreted public legal norms. In Latin America, the term denotes a specialist recognised for theoretical legal contributions. Jurists can work in the public and private sectors, including roles such as prosecutors, judges, public defenders and arbitrators. Their main focus is to study and analyse legal principles, contributing to the development of jurisprudence through academic interpretations. Unlike lawyers who apply the law in practice, jurists provide deeper theoretical insights into legal systems. A jurist's professional recognition is often conferred by the legal community, signifying a high level of expertise and theoretical understanding of legal structures.

7. ↑ law. Law is a complex system of rules that regulate human behaviour through rights and duties, shaped by various social and cultural influences. Rooted in Latin and Sanskrit origins, it encompasses various legal families such as civil law and common law. The field largely distinguishes between public and private law, addressing corporate and individual interests respectively. Its foundations date back to archaic societies, with early codifications such as the Code of Ur-Namu and the Code of Hammurabi. Roman law significantly advanced legal systems, separating law from religion and morality, and developing sophisticated legal concepts. Modern law comes from multiple sources, including state legislation, international treaties and individual contracts. Courts and tribunals apply legal norms through interpretation guided by doctrine, custom and judicial precedent, reflecting the dynamic and adaptive nature of law.

Alf Ross
Birth	10 de junho de 1899 Copenhaga
Death	17 de agosto de 1979 (80 anos) Virum
Citizenship	Reino da Dinamarca
Cônjuge	Else-Merete Ross
Alma mater	Universidade de Uppsala Vestre Borgerdydskole Universidade de Copenhague
Occupation	jurist, judge, philosopher
Distinções	honorary doctorate of the University of Oslo (1951)
Empregador(a)	Universidade de Copenhague
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